Leuphana RSS-Feed: Center of Methods Archive

Two new publications by Johannes Lohse on risk-taking

Mon, 18 May 2026 12:55:09 +0200

Two new publications by Johannes Lohse and co-authors examine risk-taking in different decision contexts. The study Attention costs drive differences between active and passive risk-taking, published in Nature Scientific Reports, investigates whether people take risks differently when risk results from deliberate action rather than from inaction. The findings show that differences between active and passive risk-taking become particularly relevant when decision environments involve higher attention costs.

The second study, Novel assessment of risk tolerance in acute healthcare settings, published in BMJ Open, examines risk tolerance in acute healthcare settings. It focuses on how patients, carers and healthcare staff assess risks when decisions have to be made about where care should be delivered. The study finds that risk tolerance is context-dependent: participants were less risk tolerant in health-related decisions than in financial decisions, while still being able to engage in structured discussions about risk, including in acute care situations.
Taken together, the two studies show that risk-taking depends strongly on the decision context, including attention, choice mode and whether the consequences are financial or health-related.

Biosphere reserves scrutinized: New study proves the lack of functionality of protected forests

Wed, 26 Feb 2025 11:59:21 +0100

Mixed effect models for evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas
(Publication by Dr. Charlotte Gohr and Prof. Dr. Henrik von Wehrden)

Dr. Charlotte Gohr has published an article with Prof. Dr. Henrik von Wehrden, Prof. Dr. Sassan Saatchi (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, Pasadena), Prof. Dr. Nathalie Pettorelli (Institute of Zoology, London) and Prof. Dr. Pierre Ibisch (Eberwalde University for Sustainable Development, Eberswalde) entitled “Effectiveness of the world network of biosphere reserves in maintaining forest ecosystem functions” in Nature Communications Earth & Environment. In this study, forests in 119 UNESCO biosphere reserves were compared with surrounding forests using seven proxies of ecosystem function to investigate the effectiveness of protected area status. Based on nearly eight million data points from satellite imagery, mixed models were used to identify patterns. Only 18 of the 119 biosphere reserves studied performed better than the surrounding areas for all proxies of forest ecosystem function. Regardless of the respective biomes in which the biosphere reserves are located, the ecosystem functions are greater in forests with higher tree density than in sparser forests. A follow-up study will now investigate the extent to which economic factors in the countries in which the protected areas are located have an influence on the functionality of the forests.

The complete study is available under an open access license at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02081-y

A post on the study, which sheds light on the background to Charlotte Gohr's doctorate, is available here:

https://communities.springernature.com/posts/a-phd-journey-to-assess-the-effectiveness-of-biosphere-reserves-worldwide-8bb39a4a-46c4-412a-9f51-f16140043cf9?channel_id=behind-the-paper

Can you recognize a person's willingness to cooperate from their face? (publication by Prof. Dr. Johannes Lohse)

Tue, 01 Oct 2024 12:12:00 +0200

Prof. Dr. Johannes Lohse, together with Prof. Dr. Santiago Sanchez-Pages (King's College London) and Prof. Dr. Enrique Turiegano (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), has published a paper titled " The role of facial cues in signalling cooperativeness is limited and nuanced" in Nature Scientific Reports. This experimental study examines whether static images can predict a person's cooperativeness. Participants first played the Prisoner’s Dilemma, a standard method for measuring cooperativeness, and were then asked to predict the cooperativeness of individuals from a previous study based solely on their photographs. The results show that the accuracy of predictions was only slightly better than random guessing. Interestingly, participants were better at identifying cooperative tendencies in individuals who were similar to themselves. Additionally, predictions under time pressure improved, particularly when evaluating male cooperation partners. These findings suggest that static facial images play only a limited but nuanced role in predicting cooperativeness.

The full study is available under an Open Access license at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71685-9

How do recommendations influence our willingness to take risks and our fairness? (publication by Prof. Dr. Johannes Lohse)

Thu, 15 Aug 2024 15:47:50 +0200

A study titled “Beyond Social Influence: Examining the Efficacy of Non-Social Recommendations” by Dr. Johannes Lohse (Leuphana University), Dr. Danae Arroyos-Calvera, and Dr. Rebecca McDonald (both from the University of Birmingham) has been published in the European Economic Review (Volume 168).

This study explores the effects of recommendations on behavior in the areas of risk-taking and fairness. Its findings reveal that participants pay little attention to the source of algorithmic recommendations, leading to similar behavioral responses whether the recommendations are based on the past behavior of others or purely random. This challenges the widely held belief that social recommendations, which leverage social norms, are a more effective way of influencing decisions in allocation and risk tasks.

The research shows that recommendations lacking social context—those transparently generated by random processes—can be just as effective in influencing behavior as socially-based recommendations.

To investigate the underlying mechanisms further, the authors conducted a follow-up study. The results indicate that recommendations may influence behavior through alternative channels, such as deflecting responsibility, anchoring effects, and the general tendency to follow recommendations, rather than simply serving as reminders of normative behavior.

This research provides valuable insights for policymakers aiming to influence behavior, indicating that non-social information can be as powerful a tool for decision-making as traditional social nudges.

The full study is available under an open-access license at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2024.104801.

New publication by Prof. Dr. Anna Lisa Ramella, Steffen Köhn, and Igor Karim (Eds.): Filming Futures

Tue, 13 Aug 2024 11:26:16 +0200

Future-Making and Speculative Fiction in Ethnographic Film and Multimodal Practice Anthrovision, 10 | 2023, published 07 July 2024
journals.openedition.org/anthrovision/

Prof. Dr. Anna Lisa Ramella: Lecture series Decolonising Anthropology (every Thursday 18-20 h on Webex)

Fri, 21 Jun 2024 11:05:45 +0200

https://boasblogs.org/decolonizinganthropology/

New publication by Prof. Dr. Anna Lisa Ramella (Special Issue) with Anja Dreschke and Simone Pfeifer on allegralaboratory.net

Fri, 21 Jun 2024 10:03:00 +0200

allegralaboratory.net/multimodal-digital-curating-as-anthropological-research-collaboration-and-engagement/

New publication by Johannes Lohse: Investigations of Decision Processes at the Intersection of Psychology and Economics (Journal of Economic Psychology)

Thu, 30 May 2024 19:10:00 +0200

Dr. Johannes Lohse (Leuphana), Dr. Rima-Maria Rahal (MPI), Dr. Michael Schulte-Mecklenbeck (MPI), Dr. Andis Sofianos (Durham) und Dr. Conny Wollbrant (St. Andrews) have jointly published an editorial on ‘Investigations of Decision Processes at the Intersection of Psychology and Economics’. This editorial, published as an introduction to the special issue ‘Cognition and Economic Behaviour’ in the Journal of Economic Psychology, highlights recent developments in research on the cognitive processes underlying economic decisions.

By drawing on psychological and economic expertise, the articles in the special issue show how perception, attention and information processing can influence economic behaviour. The included studies highlight the need to go beyond the mere observation of decisions and gain deeper insights into the processes of information processing and decision-making by using methods such as mouse and eye tracking techniques.

You can view the complete study at the following link: doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2024.102741

Engler, J.-O., Kretschmer, M.-F., Rathgens, J., Ament, J. A., Huth, T., & Von Wehrden, H. (2024). 15 years of degrowth research: A systematic review. Ecological Economics, 218, 108101.

Fri, 12 Jan 2024 15:37:00 +0100

In academia and political debates, the notions of ‘degrowth’ has gained traction since the dawn of the 21st century. While some uncertainty around its exact definition remains, research on degrowth revolves around the idea of reducing resource and energy throughput as a unifying theme. We employ a mixed-methods design to systematically review the scientific peer-reviewed English literature from 2008 to 2022 that refers to ‘degrowth’ or ‘post-growth’ in title, keywords or abstract (N = 951). We find a lack of concrete distributional and monetary policy proposals in the sample analyzed, and a low overall degree of collaboration among authors in relation to degrowth's age and size. The scientific peer-reviewed literature analyzed can be grouped into seven clusters along two major gradients, one along methodology (qualitative-quantitative) and the other along scale-of-analysis (individual-societal). We conclude that the academic literature about degrowth would benefit from a more prominent discussion of the political implications of its ideas and proposals, and that in particular the debate about distributional policy implications of degrowth should be more prominent and concrete, with a stronger focus on distributional policies in a degrowing economy.

Engler, J.-O., Kretschmer, M.-F., Rathgens, J., Ament, J. A., Huth, T., & Von Wehrden, H. (2024). 15 years of degrowth research: A systematic review. Ecological Economics, 218, 108101. doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2023.108101

WRITING: AI and Sustainability: A Systematic Review

Fri, 01 Dec 2023 16:15:00 +0100

Informal: Future Scientists – Post-Disciplinary Careers

Wed, 08 Nov 2023 14:32:00 +0100

How should you plan your career? What is important to learn? How do you develop your focus? How do established scientists work? Within our meetings we will focus on all these questions, and more. Our goal is to create a community, as well as an integrated and immersive learning environment that helps you to actively design your career and build a network. Within the first meeting we will get to know each other, and develop a list of topics to subsequently design our path towards a fulfilled scientific career. Become a change agent in science and beyond, and learn to contribute to the necessary developments science needs to tackle.

Informal: Future Scientists – Welcome (back)!

Wed, 25 Oct 2023 14:26:00 +0200

Engler, J. O., & von Wehrden, H. (2023). 28 months later: the coronavirus pandemic as an analogy for future sustainability challenges. Sustainability Science, 18(5).

Fri, 01 Sep 2023 16:43:00 +0200

Engler, J. O., & von Wehrden, H. (2023). 28 months later: the coronavirus pandemic as an analogy for future sustainability challenges. Sustainability Science, 18(5), 2499-2504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-023-01383-4

Weiss, F., Wehrden, H., & Linde, A. (2023). Random year intercepts in mixed models help to assess uncertainties in insect population trends. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 16(4).

Sat, 01 Jul 2023 00:00:00 +0200

An increasing number of studies is investigating insect population trends based on time series data. However, the available data is often subject to temporal pseudoreplication. Inter‐annual variability of environmental conditions and strong fluctuations in insect abundances can impede reliable trend estimation. Temporal random effect structures in regression models have been proposed as solution for this issue, but remain controversial. We investigated trends in ground beetle abundance across 24 years using generalised linear mixed models. We fitted four models: A base model, a model featuring a random year intercept, a model featuring basic weather parameters, and a model featuring both random year intercept and weather parameters. We then performed a simple sensitivity analysis to assess the robustness of the four models with respect to influential years, also testing for possible spurious baseline and snapshot effects. The model structure had a significant impact on the overall magnitude of the estimated trends. However, we found almost no difference among the models in how the removal of single years (sensitivity analysis) relatively affected trend coefficients. The two models with a random year intercept yielded significantly larger confidence intervals and their p‐values were more sensitive during sensitivity analysis. Significant differences of the model with random year intercept and weather parameters to all other models suggest that the random year effects and specific weather effects are rather additive than interchangeable. We conclude that random year intercepts help to produce more reliable and cautious uncertainty measures for insect population trends. Moreover, they might help to identify influential years in sensitivity analyses more easily. We recommend random year intercepts in addition to any variables representing temporally variable environmental conditions, such as weather variables. We tested how random year intercepts in generalised linear mixed models (GLMMs) affect the sensitivity of insect abundance trend estimates towards single years. Random year intercepts had significant effects on the overall magnitude of the estimated trends, trend uncertainties and p‐values, but almost no effect on trend sensitivity towards single years. Random year intercepts help to account for year effects and temporal pseudoreplication in insect time series. They allow estimating more conservative trend uncertainties; i.e. larger confidence intervals and p‐values.

Basse, T., Karmani, M., Rjiba, H., & Wegener, C. (2023). Does adhering to the principles of green finance matter for stock valuation? Evidence from testing for (co-)explosiveness. Energy Economics, 123, [106729].

Sat, 01 Jul 2023 00:00:00 +0200

We use a test for co-explosiveness to improve our understanding of the effects of green finance on the valuation of stocks. First, by testing against temporary explosiveness in the MVIS Global Coal Index, the NASDAQ OMX Green Economy Index, and the MSCI World Equity Index, we find evidence for explosive periods in the latter two time series. Second, we use a recently proposed econometric procedure to test for co-explosivity of the jointly explosive variables, i.e., the NASDAQ OMX Green Economy Index and the MSCI World Equity Index. The test results indicate co-explosive behavior. The MVIS Global Coal Index, on the other hand, shows completely different time series properties. Assuming that there is no speculative bubble, the theory of corporate finance suggests that this empirical finding should be a result of differences with regard to risk premia demanded by investors buying the respective stocks and (respectively or) expected future corporate earnings of the firms examined here. More specifically, the existence of higher risk premia and pessimistic expectations regarding future corporate earnings should suggest that investors are looking at the business models of firms that are included in the MVIS Global Coal Index with at least a certain degree of skepticism. Thus, our results imply that not adhering to the principles of green finance perhaps might be more important for the stock market valuation of firms than adhering to it.

Basse, T., Desmyter, S., Saft, D., & Wegener, C. (2023). Leading indicators for the US housing market: New empirical evidence and thoughts about implications for risk managers and ESG investors. International Review of Financial Analysis, 89, [102765].

Thu, 29 Jun 2023 00:00:00 +0200

Basse, T., Desmyter, S., Saft, D., & Wegener, C. (2023). Leading indicators for the US housing market: New empirical evidence and thoughts about implications for risk managers and ESG investors. International Review of Financial Analysis, 89, [102765]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2023.102765

Ackerschott, A., Kohlhase, E., Vollmer, A., Hörisch, J., & von Wehrden, H. (2023). Steering of land use in the context of sustainable development: A systematic review of economic instruments. Land Use Policy, 129, [106620].

Thu, 01 Jun 2023 00:00:00 +0200

Ackerschott, A., Kohlhase, E., Vollmer, A., Hörisch, J., & von Wehrden, H. (2023). Steering of land use in the context of sustainable development: A systematic review of economic instruments. Land Use Policy, 129, [106620]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106620

Zimmermann, S., Dermody, B. J., Theunissen, B., Wassen, M. J., Divine, L. M., Padula, V. M., von Wehrden, H., & Dorresteijn, I. (2023). A leverage points perspective on Arctic Indigenous food systems research: a systematic review. Sustainability Science,

Mon, 01 May 2023 00:00:00 +0200

Arctic food systems are increasingly challenged by rapid climate change, loss of food security and subsequent weakening of food sovereignty, and destabilization of Indigenous practices. Despite growing scientific knowledge on Arctic food systems, Indigenous communities continue to struggle with a plethora of sustainability challenges. To develop a systemic understanding of these challenges, we performed a systematic review of 526 articles published between 1998 and 2021 on Arctic Indigenous food systems. We used the leverage points framework to structure our analysis to understand to what extent the existing Western scientific body of literature provides the necessary knowledge to understand the food system characteristics that give rise to the current sustainability challenges. We combined deductive qualitative and inductive quantitative approaches to identify gaps in the systemic understanding of Arctic Indigenous food systems. We characterized existing research across the four levels of systemic depth—parameters, feedbacks, design, intent—and identified promising directions for future research. Our analyses show that research on food systems is clustered within six main domains, we term environmental contaminants, diet and health, food security, food culture and economy, changing socio-ecological systems and marine and coast. Based on our analysis, we identify three directions for future research that we believe to be of particular importance to enable sustainability transformations of Arctic Indigenous food systems: (i) the decolonization of research practices, (ii) acknowledging the significance of systemic interdependencies across shallow and deep leverage points, and (iii) transdisciplinary action-oriented research collaborations directing transformative system interventions.

Caniglia, G. et al. (2023). Practical wisdom and virtue ethics for knowledge co-production in sustainability science. Nature Sustainability, 6(5).

Mon, 01 May 2023 00:00:00 +0200

Caniglia, G., Freeth, R., Lüderitz, C., Leventon, J., West, S. P., John, B., Peukert, D., Lang, D. J., von Wehrden, H., Martín-López, B., Fazey, I., Russo, F., von Wirth, T., Schlüter, M., & Vogel, C. (2023). Practical wisdom and virtue ethics for knowledge co-production in sustainability science. Nature Sustainability, 6(5), 493-501. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-01040-1

Basse, T., & Wegener, C. (2022). Inflation expectations: Australian consumer survey data versus the bond market. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 203.

Tue, 01 Nov 2022 00:00:00 +0100

This paper analyzes the relationship between interest rates, inflation expectations and inflation rates in Australia using the approach suggested by Toda and Yamamoto (1995) to test for Granger causality. The empirical evidence reported here suggests that uni-directional Granger causality is running from medium- and long-term government bond yields to short-term inflation expectations as measured by a survey among consumers. Moreover, there is bidirectional Granger causality among short-term interest rates and short-term inflation expectations among consumers. Additionally, interest rates and the sentiment data measuring inflation expectations can help to predict inflation rates. These findings are supportive for the Fisher effect and also seem to indicate that the bond market is quite efficient predicting inflation rates. Furthermore, some problems of more traditional tests of the Fisher hypothesis are discussed. In this context the role of financial deregulation in Australia is examined. Thus, the Lucas critique seems to be of some relevance testing the Fisher effect (see Lucas, 1976).

WRITING: Psychology and Sustainability: a Systematic Review

Sat, 01 Oct 2022 18:56:00 +0200

We use a systematic literature review to assess how psychological research reported in prominent psychology journals has studied individual behavior change related to sustainability since the Brundtland Report in 1987.

WRITING: Systematic review in sustainability science – from data to results

Sat, 01 Oct 2022 00:00:00 +0200

The paper details the steps for how to generate tangible results from the data gathered in a systematic review process. Given the interdisciplinary nature of sustainability science, we focus on the integration of different knowledge types. Furthermore, we provide guidelines for identifying relevant literature, elaborate on bias that may occur and highlight a variety of possibilities to present data.The article is the second part of a trilogy, thus builds on the previous publication „Systematic student-driven literature reviews in sustainability science“ (Luederitz et al., 2016).

involved: Henrik von Wehrden, Julius Rathgens, Carlo Krügermeier

Chauhan, N., von Wehrden, H., & Joshi, P. K. (2022). Socio-Environmental Vulnerability of Agriculture Communities to Climate Change in Western Himalaya: A Household-Level Review.

Sat, 24 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0200

Himalayan agriculture households face an increased risk of vulnerability due to its harsh intrinsic social and environmental factors. And the changing climatic conditions are further enhancing the vulnerability of these systems. To improve adaptation strategies and policy formulation, the impact of climate change on a household level needs to be accessed. However, comprehending the role of social and environmental factors in vulnerability assessments to climate change has received little attention on a household level. To integrate the knowledge available in the scientific literature, we performed a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature available on household vulnerability assessment (n = 21, focusing on research conducted in the Himalayas region). We evaluated the available literature according to (1) bibliometric features of selected studies and (2) the dynamic of vulnerability assessment. Most of the articles reviewed by us assessed vulnerability utilizing statistical assessment methods. The number of studies incorporating both social and environmental aspects has increased in recent years. Almost 50% of the studies focused on a single stressor, i.e., climate change for vulnerability. Holistic approaches and multi-level assessment are mostly lacking, as studied to combinedly assess both social and environmental factors.

Rodriguez Gonzalez, M., Wegener, C., & Basse, T. (2022). Re-investigating the insurance-growth nexus using common factors. Finance Research Letters, 46(Part A), [102231].

Sun, 01 May 2022 00:00:00 +0200

Rodriguez Gonzalez, M., Wegener, C., & Basse, T. (2022). Re-investigating the insurance-growth nexus using common factors. Finance Research Letters, 46(Part A), [102231]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2021.102231

Gohr, C., von Wehrden, H., May, F., & Ibisch, P. L. (2022). Remotely sensed effectiveness assessments of protected areas lack a common framework: A review. Ecosphere, 13(4), [e4053].

Fri, 01 Apr 2022 00:00:00 +0200

Effective protected areas reflect socio-ecological values, such as biodiversity and habitat maintenance, as well as human well-being. These values, which safeguard ecosystem services in protected areas, are treated as models for the sustainable preservation and use of resources. While there is much research on the effectiveness of protected areas in a variety of disciplines, the question is whether there is a common framework that uses remote sensing methods. We conducted a qualitative and a quantitative analysis of 44 peer-reviewed scientific papers utilizing remote sensing data in order to examine the effectiveness of protected areas. Very few studies to date have a wide or even a global geographical focus; instead, most quantify the effectiveness of protected areas by focusing on local-scale case studies and single indicators such as forest cover change. Methods that help integrate spatial selection approaches, to compare a protected area's characteristics with its surroundings, are increasingly being used. Based on this review, we argue for a multi-indicator-based framework on protected area effectiveness, including the development of a consistent set of socio-ecological indicators for a global analysis. In turn, this will allow for globally applicable use, including a concrete evaluation that considers the diversity of regional parameters, biome-specific variables, and political frameworks. Ideally, such a framework will enhance the monitoring and evaluation of global strategies and conventions.

Renison, D. et al. (2022). Invertebrate herbivory rather than competition with tussocks will increasingly delay highland forest regeneration in degraded areas under active restoration. Forest Ecology and Management, 506, [119990].

Tue, 15 Feb 2022 00:00:00 +0100

Determining barriers to tree regeneration along elevational gradients is important to predict shifts in regeneration patterns under climate change scenarios. The stress-gradient hypothesis predicts that facilitation predominates at high elevations and competition at low elevations. Invertebrate herbivory may also play an important, yet hardly recognized role, in low elevation and degraded areas. Our objective was to understand the relative changes in facilitation, competition and invertebrate herbivory along an elevational gradient degraded by long-term livestock rearing and repeated wildfires. Our study area was a seasonally dry ecosystem in central Argentina subjected to forest restoration activities. We planted 3000 saplings of the dominant early and late successional tree species in a full factorial design that included elevation (3 levels: low, 1300; intermediate, 1800; and high, 2300 m a.s.l.), microsite treatment, where we manipulated facilitation and competition (4 levels: tussock grasses mowed to the ground, tussock grasses mowed to 15 cm above the ground, unmowed tussock grasses with an average height of 70 cm, and tussock grasses mowed to the ground near rock outcrops) and 5 blocks per elevation. We monitored sapling survival, change in height, and damage by invertebrate herbivores during one year. For both species, sapling survival significantly increased with elevation, while sapling change in height decreased. Survival and change in height for microsite treatments suggest weak competition for the early successional species and facilitation for the late successional species. Notably, we did not find the elevation and microsite treatment interaction predicted by the stress-gradient hypothesis. The main invertebrate herbivores were leaf-cutting ants, which damaged 42, 33 and 0%, and 25, 27 and 0% of the saplings according to species, for the low, intermediate and high elevations, respectively. Damage did not differ significantly between microsite treatments for either species. Survival for saplings with evidence of damage by leaf-cutting ants was 2.5 and 3.4 times lower as compared saplings with no evidences, according to species. Our findings imply that under a climate warming scenario, future facilitation and competition effects will be similar to current effects, whereas leaf-cutting ants rather than competition may increasingly limit tree regeneration.

Jager, N. W., Newig, J., Challies, E., Kochskämper, E., & von Wehrden, H. (2022). Case study meta-analysis in the social sciences. Insights on data quality and reliability from a large-N case survey. Research Synthesis Methods, 13(1).

Sat, 01 Jan 2022 00:00:00 +0100

Meta-analytical methods face particular challenges in research fields such as social and political research, where studies often rest primarily on qualitative and case study research. In such contexts, where research findings are less standardized and amenable to structured synthesis, the case survey method has been proposed as a means of data generation and analysis. The method offers a meta-analytical tool to synthesize larger numbers of qualitative case studies, yielding data amenable to large-N analysis. However, resulting data is prone to specific threats to validity, including biases due to publication type, rater behaviour, and variable characteristics, which researchers need to be aware of. While these biases are well known in theory, and typically explored for primary research, their prevalence in case survey meta-analyses remains relatively unexplored. We draw on a case survey of 305 published qualitative case studies of public environmental decision-making, and systematically analyze these biases in the resultant data. Our findings indicate that case surveys can deliver high-quality and reliable results. However, we also find that these biases do indeed occur, albeit to a small degree or under specific conditions of complexity. We identify a number of design choices to mitigate biases that may threaten validity in case survey meta-analysis. Our findings are of importance to those using the case survey method – and to those who might apply insights derived by this method to inform policy and practice.